Frederick I, better known as Frederick Barbarossa, was one of the most ambitious and powerful Holy Roman Emperors of the Middle Ages. His reign, spanning from 1155 to 1190, was marked by numerous military campaigns, particularly in Italy, where he sought to reassert imperial authority over the increasingly independent Italian city-states. This article explores Barbarossa’s Italian campaigns, their impact on the political landscape of medieval Italy, and the ultimate consequences for both the emperor and the Italian municpalities.
The First Italian Campaign (1154-1155)
Frederick Barbarossa’s first descent into Italy began in the autumn of 1154, marking the start of his ambitious plan to restore imperial power in the region. Despite having a relatively small force of only 1,800 men, the young king set out to pacify northern Italy and re-establish imperial authority.
The campaign started with impressive victories: Barbarossa besieged and conquered the rebellious cities of Asti, Chieri, and Tortona; he also attacked several castles in the Milanese countryside, though he avoided confronting Milan directly due to insufficient forces. Confident that he had proved his point, the emperor convened the Diet of Roncaglia, reasserting imperial authority and nullifying Milan’s recent conquests, particularly over Como and Lodi.
The first part of Barbarossa’s journey culminated in Rome, where he was crowned Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire by Pope Adrian IV on June 18, 1155. However, this momentous occasion was marred by conflict as the Roman people harshly contested Frederick’s presence in the city. In response, the newly crowned emperor brutally suppressed the revolt, foreshadowing the strained relationships that would develop between the Holy Roman Empire and the Papacy.
On his way back to Germany, Barbarossa continued to assert his authority by destroying the city of Spoleto, accusing it of paying taxes with counterfeit currency. This action demonstrated Barbarossa’s determination to restore effective imperial power over northern Italy, setting him apart from his predecessors.
The Second Italian Campaign (1158-1162)
Barbarossa’s second descent into Italy, beginning in June 1158, was prompted by the continued defiance of Milan and its allied municipalities against imperial power.
The campaign focused on subduing Milan: Barbarossa first defeated Brescia, a Milanese ally, then he liberated Lodi from Milanese control. Only once Milan was isolated did the emperor then direct his attack on Milan itself. Facing the prospect of a long and hopeless siege, Milan surrendered on September 8, 1158.
Following his victory, Barbarossa convened a second Diet at Roncaglia in autumn 1158. This assembly had far-reaching consequences:
- It reaffirmed imperial dominion over the northern Italian municipalities.
- The emperor’s authority was established as supreme over local institutions.
- Barbarossa decreed that all regalie (royal rights) were to be paid directly to the sovereign.
The proclamations of the second Diet of Roncaglia had a disruptive effect on the Italian communes, leading to immediate rebellion. Barbarossa’s response was swift and brutal: he received reinforcements from Germany and conquered several rebellious municipalities in northern Italy. In 1162, the emperor turned his attention back to Milan, besieging the city. After Milan’s surrender on March 1, 1162, Barbarossa ordered the complete destruction of the city. Several of Milan’s allies suffered a similar fate.
In the aftermath of Milan’s destruction, Barbarossa intensified his grip on the Italian cities: he established a bureaucratic structure run by officials directly answerable to the emperor, effectively suppressing municipal autonomies and Imperial-nominated Governors were installed to govern the rebel cities.
The Third Italian Campaign (1163-1164)
While less documented in the provided search results, Barbarossa’s third campaign into Italy took place between 1163 and 1164. This expedition was a continuation of his efforts to maintain control over the increasingly restless Italian municipalities and to deal with the growing opposition from Pope Alexander III who has excommunicated the Holy Roman Empire in an attempt to assert the independence of the Papacy.
The Fourth Italian Campaign (1166-1168)
Barbarossa’s fourth descent into Italy began in late 1166 and was marked by a shift in focus from the northern Italian communes to the Papacy itself.
The emperor’s approach to Italy this time was strategic: he crossed the Alps via the Brenner Pass but diverted through Val Camonica to avoid the Marca of Verona. For this campaign , Barbarossa’s primary objective was not the rebellious Italian communes, but rather the Papacy.
The campaign was deeply intertwined with papal politics: Barbarossa supported Antipope Paschal III against the legitimate Pope Alexander III, while the latter had previously gained recognition from other European sovereigns and had returned to Rome in 1165. The Holy Roman Emperor, asserting his historical role in papal appointments, decided to intervene directly.
Barbarossa’s campaign initially seemed successful, as he attacked several cities in northern Italy as a show of force, then marched on Rome victoriously, and the city surrendered. However, disaster struck in the form of a devastating epidemic: An outbreak, possibly malaria, spread through the ranks of the imperial army, infecting the emperor himself. Barbarossa was forced to abandon Rome and retreat hastily to northern Italy in search of reinforcements in August 1167.
In response to Barbarossa’s campaigns, the municipalities of northern Italy joined forces to create the Lombard League, a military alliance aimed at resisting imperial control. On December 1, 1167, the Lombard League expanded significantly with the addition of the municipalities from the Lega Veronese.
Upon returning to northern Italy, Barbarossa found himself in a difficult position. He attempted to confront the League but faced a stalemate. Some of his sieges failed and a growing number of cities joined the alliance. Ultimately, the emperor decided to postpone further confrontation and return to Germany in 1168.
The Fifth Italian Campaign and the Battle of Legnano (1174-1176)
Barbarossa’s fifth and most famous Italian campaign culminated in the decisive Battle of Legnano on May 29, 1176. In 1174 the Holy Roman Emperor crossed the Alps again to try to settle matters for once and for all. Despite insufficient reinforcements from Germany and Italian allies, Barbarossa decided to march from Como to Pavia, hoping that a forced march of his forces could prevent interception by North Italian municipal forces. He aimed to reunite with the rest of his forces and confront the municipal troops in Milan or Alessandria.
The Lombard League decided to engage the imperial army as soon as possible to prevent the reunification of Teutonic armies. The League mustered about 15,000 men, but less than their full potential of 30,000. Although the presence of the enemy nearby was already known to both sides, they actually met unexpectedly with no time to select the best position to fight.
The Battle Unfolds
The battle progressed through several key phases. Initially, 700 knights from the Lombard League clashed with a patrol of 300 imperial knights near Borsano. However, Barbarossa arrived with the main army, turning the tide against the municipal cavalry and driving them off.
The municipal infantry, with the few remaining dismounted cavalry after being attacked by Barbarossa, settled around the village of Legnano, organizing themselves on some defensive lines along a wide semicircle 2–3 km in length, each of which consisted of soldiers protected by shields. Between one shield and another the lances were then stretched, with the first row of foot soldiers fighting on their knees so as to form a jumble of spears aimed at the enemy. During the fight, which lasted eight to nine hours from morning to three in the afternoon and which was characterized by repeated Imperial charges punctuated by long pauses for the armies to reorganise, the first two lines finally gave way, but the third resisted shocks.
Meanwhile, the municipal cavalry which had been retreating towards Milan after their initial clash with the imperial cavalry met the bulk of the Lombard League army moving towards Legnano. The municipal army, now reunified, moved forwards and attacked the imperial troops on the sides and from behind. Barbarossa’s troops, already tired from the vain assaults on Legnano, were forced onto the defensive.
Sensing where the heart of the battle was, Frederick Barbarossa, with his usual audacity, threw himself into the middle of the fray trying to encourage his troops, but without appreciable results. In fact, in the heat of battle his horse was mortally wounded and the emperor disappeared to the sight of the fighters; in addition, the imperial army standard-bearer was killed, pierced by a spear. The imperials, attacked on two sides, began to become discouraged and faced a total defeat.
Barbarossa’s imperials tried to flee towards Ticino, but were pursued by the troops of the Lombard League for eight miles. The last phase of the battle, ended with the capture and killing of many soldiers of the imperial army and with the sacking of Barbarossa’s military camp. The emperor himself was lucky to escape capture and reach his allied city of Pavia.
Significance of Barbarossa’s Defeat at Legnano
The Battle of Legnano was a turning point in Barbarossa’s Italian campaigns: their victory boosted the morale and political standing of the Italian municipalities, and forced Barbarossa to reconsider his approach to controlling Italy.
Barbarossa was forced to negotiate with Pope Alexander III and the Lombard League and the subsequent Peace of Venice (1177) and Treaty of Constance (1183) formally ended Barbarossa’s attempts to dominate northern Italy, while recognizing the Lombard League and granting significant autonomy to the Italian municipalities like Milan. Frederick was forced to acknowledge Alexander III as the true pope.
Future Holy Roman Emperors emperors would approach Italy with more caution, recognizing the strength of the Italian city states or municipalities. The resistance to Barbarossa’s campaigns contributed to the growing independence and unique political development of the Italian city-states, laying the groundwork for the later flourishing of the Renaissance in these autonomous urban centers.
Barbarossa turned his attention to consolidating power in Germany and attempting to secure his legacy by taking a huge force from Germany on the Third Crusade. Read the incredible story of Frederick Barbarossa’s exploits on the Third Crusade here.
