Not simply a warrior society
The End of Roman Britain
As the 5th century dawned, Roman control over Britain was waning. The last Roman legions withdrew from the island around 410 CE, leaving a power vacuum that would soon be filled by new arrivals from the continent. The post-Roman Britons, a mix of Romanized Celts and descendants of Roman settlers, struggled to maintain order and defend against raids from Picts, Irish and Germanic tribes.
Migration and Settlement
Beginning around 450 CE, waves of Germanic peoples began arriving in Britain from across the North Sea. These included Angles, Saxons, Jutes, and Frisians. While traditional accounts portrayed this as a massive invasion, modern scholarship suggests a more complex process of migration, settlement, and cultural assimilation over several generations. The newcomers established a patchwork of small kingdoms across southern and eastern Britain. By the late 6th century, several major Anglo-Saxon kingdoms had emerged, including:
- Kent
- Sussex
- Wessex
- Essex
- East Anglia
- Mercia
- Northumbria
These kingdoms would vie for supremacy over the coming centuries, with shifting alliances and conflicts shaping the political landscape of early medieval Britain.
Social Structure and Governance
Anglo-Saxon society was hierarchical, with a clear social structure:
- Kings and nobles (eorls)
- Freemen (ceorls)
- Slaves
Kings ruled with the support of a council of nobles called the Witan. Local governance was organized around units called hundreds, which were responsible for law enforcement and raising military forces. The Anglo-Saxons brought with them a system of customary law, which would evolve into English common law. Disputes were often settled through a process called “wergild,” where compensation was paid to the injured party or their family to avoid blood feuds.
Economy and Daily Life
The Anglo-Saxon economy was primarily agricultural, with most people living in small farming communities. Crops included wheat, barley, and oats, while livestock included cattle, sheep, and pigs. Fishing and hunting supplemented the diet. Craftsmanship flourished, with skilled artisans producing intricate metalwork, jewelry, and textiles. The famous Sutton Hoo burial, dating to the early 7th century, showcases the wealth and artistic sophistication of Anglo-Saxon elites. Trade networks expanded over time, with connections to the continent and the Mediterranean world. Imported goods included wine, olive oil, and fine textiles.
Religion and Beliefs
When the Anglo-Saxons first arrived in Britain, they brought with them their Germanic pagan beliefs. This polytheistic religion centered around gods such as Woden, Thunor, and Frig, as well as a rich mythology of elves, giants, and other supernatural beings. However, the 6th and 7th centuries saw a gradual Christianization of Anglo-Saxon England:
- 597 CE: Pope Gregory I sent Augustine to convert the Anglo-Saxons, beginning in Kent.
- Irish missionaries, such as Aidan and Cuthbert, spread Christianity in the north.
- By 700 CE, most Anglo-Saxon kingdoms had officially converted to Christianity.
The conversion process was not always smooth, and pagan beliefs often persisted alongside or blended with Christian practices. Monasteries became important centers of learning and culture, preserving and producing manuscripts that would be crucial to our understanding of this period.
Language and Literature
The Old English language, brought by the Anglo-Saxons, gradually replaced the Celtic and Latin languages of Roman Britain. This Germanic tongue would evolve into modern English, though it was quite different from the language we speak today. While most Anglo-Saxons were illiterate, a rich oral tradition of poetry and storytelling existed. Some of these works were later written down, giving us glimpses into Anglo-Saxon culture and beliefs. Notable examples include:
- Beowulf (though likely composed later, it reflects earlier traditions)
- Caedmon’s Hymn
- The Dream of the Rood
These works showcase the Anglo-Saxon poetic tradition, with its use of alliteration, kennings (metaphorical compound words), and heroic themes.
Art and Architecture
Anglo-Saxon art was characterized by intricate patterns and animal motifs, often seen in metalwork and manuscript illumination. The Sutton Hoo treasures discovered in Suffolk provide stunning examples of Anglo-Saxon craftsmanship, including the famous helmet and gold belt buckle. In architecture, most buildings were constructed of wood, with few stone structures surviving from this period. Churches were often the most substantial buildings in a community. Notable examples of early Anglo-Saxon architecture include:
- St Martin’s Church, Canterbury (partly Roman, rebuilt in the 6th century)
- Escomb Church, County Durham (7th century)
Anglo-Saxon helmet retrieved from the Sutton Hoo Burial Site
Warfare and Military Organization
Warfare was a constant feature of Anglo-Saxon society, with conflicts between kingdoms and against external threats like Viking raiders. The primary military unit was the fyrd, a levy of free men called up to defend their territory. Warriors fought with spears, swords, and axes, protected by shields and, for the wealthy, mail armor. The iconic Anglo-Saxon weapon was the seax, a single-edged knife that gave the Saxons their name.
Cultural Exchange and Influence
While the Anglo-Saxons brought significant changes to Britain, they also absorbed influences from the peoples they encountered:
- Celtic artistic motifs were incorporated into Anglo-Saxon designs.
- Latin literacy, reintroduced with Christianity, blended with Germanic runic traditions.
- Trade brought new ideas and technologies from the continent and beyond.
Legacy
The cultural foundations laid during this period would have a lasting impact on English history. The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms formed the basis for the later kingdom of England. Their language evolved into modern English, and their legal traditions influenced the development of English common law. The blending of Germanic, Celtic, and Christian elements created a unique culture that would continue to evolve through subsequent Viking and Norman invasions, ultimately shaping the England we know today.
