A Reign of Misfortune and Misconceptions
Ethelred II, infamously known as “the Unready,” reigned as King of England from 978 to 1013 and again from 1014 to 1016. His tumultuous reign, marked by Viking invasions and political turmoil, has long been viewed as a period of ineffective leadership and national decline. However, a closer examination of his life and times reveals a more complex picture of a monarch struggling against formidable challenges.
Early Life and Ascension to the Throne
Born around 968, Ethelred was the younger son of King Edgar the Peaceful and Queen Ælfthryth. His early years were overshadowed by tragedy and controversy. In 978, at the tender age of 10, Ethelred ascended to the throne following the assassination of his half-brother, King Edward the Martyr. This violent transition cast a long shadow over Ethelred’s reign, as suspicions of his involvement in the murder undermined his authority from the start.
The epithet “Unready” that has become synonymous with Ethelred is actually a linguistic misinterpretation. It derives from the Old English “unræd,” meaning “bad counsel” or “no counsel,” and was likely a pun on his name, which ironically means “noble counsel”. This nickname, coined after his death, reflects the perception of his reign as one plagued by poor decision-making and ineffective governance.
The Viking Threat
Ethelred’s reign coincided with a resurgence of Viking raids on England, a challenge that would define much of his time on the throne. The attacks began in earnest in 980, gradually escalating in scale and frequency. By 991, a significant Viking force had landed in Essex, defeating the English army at the Battle of Maldon.
Faced with this mounting threat, Ethelred resorted to a strategy that would become one of his most criticized policies: paying off the Vikings to leave England. This practice, known as Danegeld, was not unique to Ethelred; previous rulers, including the revered King Alfred, had employed similar tactics. However, the frequency and increasing sums of these payments under Ethelred’s rule strained the kingdom’s resources and emboldened further Viking incursions. By 1002, Ethelred was desperate for a more permanent solution to the Danish problem.
The St. Brice’s Day Massacre
One of the most notorious events of Ethelred’s reign occurred on November 13, 1002 – the St. Brice’s Day Massacre. On St. Brice’s Day, November 13, 1002, Æthelred issued a royal decree ordering the execution of all Danes living in England. In his own words, as recorded in a charter from 1004, he commanded “that all the Danes who had sprung up in this island, sprouting like cockle amongst the wheat, were to be destroyed by a most just extermination”
While it’s unlikely that the killing was truly nationwide, evidence suggests that it was carried out with particular brutality in certain areas, especially in border towns and larger settlements with significant Danish populations.
One of the most well-documented incidents occurred in Oxford. According to Ethelred’s charter, a group of Danes sought refuge in St. Frideswide’s Church (now Christ Church Cathedral). The local population, acting on the king’s orders, set fire to the church, burning alive those inside.
The massacre of Danes, while intended to strengthen his position, had disastrous consequences. Among the victims of the massacre was reportedly Gunhilde, sister of the Danish King Sweyn Forkbeard. Her death, along with that of her husband Pallig Tokesen (who had been made Earl of Devon by Ethelred), would have significant political ramifications. Rather than eliminating the Danish threat, it provoked a fierce response from the King Sweyn Forkbeard. Over the next decade, Sweyn launched a series of retaliatory attacks on England, culminating in a full-scale invasion in 1013.
The Exile and Return
Sweyn Forkbeard’s successful invasion forced Ethelred to flee to Normandy, where he had established connections through his marriage to Emma of Normandy. However, Sweyn’s rule of England lasted just a few weeks and his unexpected death in February 1014 provided Ethelred with an opportunity to reclaim his throne.
The Invitation to Return
Following Sweyn’s death, the political landscape in England became complex. Sweyn’s son, Cnut, was present in England and had been proclaimed king by the Danish army. However, he was young and his position was not secure.
In a crucial move, the English nobility, particularly those from Wessex, sent a delegation to Normandy. They invited Ethelred to return and reclaim his throne, but this invitation came with conditions. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that the nobles were willing to accept Ethelred back only if he agreed to rule more justly than he had before.
The Restoration Agreement of 1014
The conditions set by the English nobles for Ethelred’s return represent a significant moment in English constitutional history. Some historians have dubbed this the “Anglo-Saxon Magna Carta,” drawing parallels with the more famous document of 1215.
The exact terms of this agreement are not fully known, but the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle provides some insights. Ethelred was required to address past grievances and promise better governance. Specifically, he had to agree to forgive those who had rebelled against him and pledge to rule more justly.
This agreement marks an early instance of a contractual relationship between an English monarch and his subjects. It demonstrates that even in the 11th century, there was a concept of conditional kingship, where a ruler’s authority was not absolute but subject to certain expectations of good governance.
Ethelred’s Return and Initial Success
Upon agreeing to these terms, Ethelred returned to England in the spring of 1014. His return was not universally welcomed; some areas, particularly those with strong Danish ties, were resistant. However, Ethelred moved quickly to consolidate his position. With the help of Viking mercenaries, including Olaf Haraldsson (later Saint Olaf of Norway), Ethelred retook London and won a significant battle against forces loyal to Cnut.
These initial successes allowed Ethelred to re-establish control over much of England. Cnut, facing this renewed English resistance and dealing with challenges in Denmark, temporarily withdrew from England.
Challenges of the Second Reign
Despite the promising start, Ethelred’s second reign was fraught with challenges. The country had been deeply affected by years of Viking raids and the brief Danish rule. Rebuilding trust and unity was a formidable task.
Moreover, Ethelred struggled to adhere to the spirit of his restoration agreement. By 1015, he had reverted to some of his old practices, including the violent purging of nobles suspected of disloyalty. This included the assassination of two prominent nobles, Sigeferth and Morcar, on the orders of Ethelred’s powerful ally, Eadric Streona.
These actions undermined the fragile trust between Ethelred and his nobles. They also provoked a rebellion by Ethelred’s eldest surviving son, Edmund Ironside, who had been close to the murdered nobles.
The Return of Cnut and Ethelred’s Final Days
Ethelred’s position was further weakened when Cnut returned to England with a large force in 1015. The English response was hampered by internal divisions and the rebellion of Edmund Ironside.
As Cnut’s forces advanced, Ethelred’s health began to fail. He retreated to London, where he spent his final months. Ethelred died on April 23, 1016, leaving the unsuccessful defense of the kingdom to his son Edmund.
