An Epic Life
Harald Sigurdsson, better known as Harald Hardrada (“hard ruler”), stands as one of the most fascinating figures in Viking history. His life reads like an epic saga, filled with battles, adventures, and conquests spanning from Scandinavia to the Middle East and back again. The military exploits of this legendary warrior-king, make fascinating reading, tracing his journey from a young exile to the last great Viking to attempt the conquest of England.
Early Years and Exile
Born in 1015 in Norway, Harald was the half-brother of King Olaf II (later Saint Olaf). His military career began early when, at the age of 15, he fought alongside Olaf in the Battle of Stiklestad in 1030. This battle, which resulted in Olaf’s death and the defeat of his forces, forced the young Harald into exile.
This early defeat, however, would prove to be the catalyst for Harald’s remarkable military career. Fleeing Norway, he embarked on a journey that would take him across Eastern Europe and eventually to the Byzantine Empire, where he would hone his skills as a warrior and commander.
The Varangian Guard: Harald’s Byzantine Adventures
Harald’s most formative military experiences came during his time in the Byzantine Empire, where he served in the elite Varangian Guard. This unit, composed primarily of Scandinavian warriors, served as the personal bodyguard of the Byzantine Emperor and was renowned for its fighting prowess.
During his time with the Varangians, Harald participated in numerous campaigns across the Byzantine Empire’s vast territories. He fought in Asia Minor, Sicily, and even as far as the Holy Land. These experiences exposed him to a wide range of military tactics, strategies, and technologies that were far more advanced than those typically employed by Viking forces.
During his campaigns with the Byzantine army, Harald earned the nickname “the Burner of Bulgars” for his ruthless tactics against Bulgarian rebels. While one of Harald’s most notable achievements during this period was his participation in the Byzantine campaign to reconquer Sicily from the Arabs. This campaign, which took place in the early 1040s, saw Harald employ the skills he had learned in Byzantine service. He reportedly used tactics such as feigned retreats and ambushes, demonstrating a level of tactical thinking that went beyond the straightforward charges often associated with Viking warfare.
Harald’s success in Byzantine service earned him great wealth and prestige. According to the sagas, he participated in up to 18 battles during his time in the East, emerging victorious in all of them. While this claim may be exaggerated, it speaks to the reputation Harald built as a formidable warrior and commander.
When Harald eventually decided to leave Constantinople, Empress Zoe refused him permission. Undeterred, he orchestrated a daring escape. He arranged for two ships to be prepared for departure. As they attempted to leave, one ship was destroyed by the iron chains blocking the harbor entrance. Harald’s ship, however, made it through by cleverly shifting the weight to act like a seesaw, effectively “jumping” over the chain and escaping.
Return to Scandinavia and the Fight for Norway
In 1046, Harald returned to Scandinavia, laden with wealth and military experience. He immediately set about claiming the Norwegian throne, which was then held by his nephew, Magnus the Good. Harald’s military prowess and the wealth he had accumulated in Byzantine service made him a formidable contender.
Initially, Harald allied himself with Sweyn Estridsson of Denmark against Magnus. However, when Magnus offered to share the rule of Norway with Harald, he quickly switched sides. This political maneuvering, backed by Harald’s military reputation, led to a peaceful resolution: Magnus ruled Norway and Denmark jointly with Harald until Magnus’s death in 1047, after which Harald became the sole ruler of Norway.
The Danish Campaigns
Once secure on the Norwegian throne, Harald turned his attention to Denmark. He believed he had a claim to the Danish throne through his agreement with Magnus, but this was contested by Sweyn Estridsson. What followed was a series of campaigns against Denmark that would last for nearly two decades.
Harald’s Danish campaigns demonstrated his skill in naval warfare, a crucial aspect of Viking military operations. He led numerous raids along the Danish coast, employing fast-moving fleets to strike quickly and withdraw before significant resistance could be mounted. These tactics, while not resulting in the conquest of Denmark, kept Sweyn on the defensive and demonstrated Harald’s ability to project power beyond Norway’s borders.
One of the most significant engagements of this period was the Battle of Niså in 1062. In this naval battle, Harald employed tactics he had likely learned during his time in the Byzantine Empire. According to the sagas, he used a formation called svinfylking, or “boar’s snout,” which involved arranging ships in a wedge formation to break through the enemy line. Despite being outnumbered 300 Danish ships to just 150 Norwegian, Harald’s forces achieved a decisive victory, though Sweyn managed to escape.
Innovations in Military Organization
One of Harald’s most significant contributions to Norwegian military capabilities was his reorganization of the leidang, the coastal defense system. Under Harald, this system was expanded and formalized, creating a more effective means of mobilizing forces for both defense and offense.
Harald also introduced more professional elements into his military, likely inspired by his experiences with the Varangian Guard. He maintained a force of full-time warriors, known as housecarls, who formed the core of his army. These professional soldiers, combined with the ability to call up forces through the leidang system, gave Harald a more flexible and potent military force than many of his contemporaries.
The Invasion of England
Harald’s most ambitious military venture, and ultimately his last, was the invasion of England in 1066. This campaign, which coincided with William of Normandy’s more famous invasion, represented the last great Viking attempt to conquer England.
The opportunity for invasion arose following the death of Edward the Confessor, the childless King of England. Harald claimed the English throne through an alleged agreement with the previous King of England, Magnus the Good. To strengthen his position, he allied with Tostig Godwinson, the exiled brother of the newly crowned King Harold Godwinson.
Harald’s invasion force was impressive, even by Viking standards. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, his fleet numbered around 300 ships, suggesting an army of perhaps 9,000 to 12,000 men. This force included not only Norwegians but also allies from Orkney, Scotland, and Flanders, demonstrating Harald’s ability to build coalitions.
The invasion began promisingly. Harald’s forces landed in northern England and achieved a significant victory at the Battle of Fulford on September 20, 1066. In this engagement, Harald once again demonstrated his tactical skill. Despite being outnumbered, he used the terrain to his advantage, pinning the English forces against the River Ouse and inflicting heavy casualties.
Following this victory, York surrendered to Harald, and it seemed that his conquest of England might succeed. However, King Harold Godwinson responded with remarkable speed, force-marching his army north from London to confront the Norwegian invasion.
The Battle of Stamford Bridge
The decisive engagement of Harald’s English campaign came at the Battle of Stamford Bridge on September 25, 1066. This battle is often considered to mark the end of the Viking Age and serves as a fitting final chapter in Harald’s military career.
Harald’s forces were caught by surprise by the arrival of Harold Godwinson’s army. Many of the Norwegians had left their armor with their ships, not expecting a battle. Despite this disadvantage, Harald quickly organized his forces for battle.
The battle was fierce and bloody. Harald, despite being in his 50s, fought in the thick of the action. According to the sagas, he wielded his great axe with both hands, cutting down English warriors. However, in the midst of the fighting, Harald was struck in the throat by an arrow and killed.
With Harald’s death, the Norwegian invasion fell apart. His son, Olaf, who had accompanied him on the campaign, negotiated a truce with Harold Godwinson and was allowed to return to Norway with the survivors.
Harald’s Military Legacy
In many ways, Harald Hardrada was the last great Viking warrior-king, a figure who bridged the gap between the raiding culture of the early Viking Age and the more organized warfare of medieval Europe. His life and military career continue to fascinate historians and enthusiasts, serving as a testament to the enduring legacy of the Viking Age in European history.
His experiences in the Byzantine Empire exposed him to advanced military tactics and technologies, which he then applied in his campaigns in Scandinavia and England. Harald’s use of feigned retreats, ambushes, and formations like the svinfylking in naval battles show a level of sophistication that went beyond the stereotypical Viking approach to warfare.
Harald’s reorganization of Norway’s military systems, particularly the leidang, had a lasting impact on Scandinavian military organization. By combining this system with a core of professional warriors, he created a more flexible and effective fighting force.
However, Harald’s military career also illustrates the limitations of personal prowess and tactical skill in the face of larger political and strategic realities. Despite his many victories, he was unable to conquer Denmark, and his invasion of England, while initially successful, ultimately failed.
