The veneration of relics was a cornerstone of religious life in medieval Europe, intertwining faith, politics, and art in profound ways. From the humble remains of saints to elaborate reliquaries housing fragments of the “True Cross,” relics were believed to be conduits of divine power, capable of performing miracles and offering spiritual solace.
What Are Relics?
Relics in the Christian tradition are physical remnants associated with saints, martyrs, or biblical figures. These could include body parts (bones, hair, or blood), objects they touched or used (clothing, tools), or items connected to Christ himself, such as pieces of the cross or the crown of thorns. The theological basis for relic veneration lies in their perceived ability to connect believers with the divine. They were not worshipped as divine objects but revered as tangible links to holy figures who could intercede with God on behalf of humanity.
Origins and Theological Justifications
The practice of venerating relics dates back to early Christianity. One of the earliest accounts is found in the Martyrdom of Polycarp, where followers collected the bones of the saint after his execution, describing them as “more valuable than precious stones”. By the fourth century CE, this practice became widespread, fueled by theological writings like those of St. Jerome, who emphasized that relics were aids to worship rather than objects of worship themselves.
The Second Council of Nicaea in 787 formalized this practice by mandating that every church possess a relic for its altar’s consecration. This decree underscored relics’ central role in medieval Christianity and significantly increased demand for them.
Reliquaries: Art and Devotion
Relics were often housed in ornate containers called reliquaries. These objects were masterpieces of medieval craftsmanship, made from precious metals and adorned with jewels. Reliquaries served both practical and symbolic purposes: they protected the relics while visually emphasizing their sacred nature. The decoration often included biblical scenes or saintly imagery, reinforcing the spiritual significance of what they contained.
Reliquaries also played a role in spreading cults. For example, in England Peterborough Abbey’s possession of St. Oswald’s incorrupt arm became a focal point for local devotion and liturgical innovation. The monks adapted prayers and chants for his feast day, creating a unique cultural exchange through liturgy.
Pilgrimage and Miracles
Relics became destinations for pilgrimages, journeys undertaken by believers seeking spiritual rewards such as healing or forgiveness. Pilgrims traveled great distances to touch or even see these sacred objects, believing that proximity to a relic could invoke divine intervention. Some relics gained reputations for specific powers – for instance, St. Cuthbert’s clothing was believed to cure sickness.
Pilgrimage sites like Canterbury (housing St. Thomas Becket’s remains) or Santiago de Compostela (associated with St. James) became major religious hubs. These journeys were transformative experiences that reinforced faith while fostering economic activity in host communities.
The relic of St. John’s head gained fame through its association with Amiens Cathedral in France, where it was reportedly looted from Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade in 1204. This relic spurred widespread devotion, leading to the creation of carved representations of his head for personal and communal use. These carvings often featured hollow backs, possibly designed to house smaller relics or to lighten the object for processions. Some believed these hollow heads had curative properties, especially for ailments like headaches.
One remarkable legend surrounds St. Catherine of Sienna’s head, another revered relic. After her death in Rome, her head was stolen by devotees seeking to return it to Sienna. When apprehended by guards, the remains miraculously transformed into rose petals before reassembling intact in their bag – an event interpreted as divine intervention. Today, her head rests in a gilded reliquary in Sienna’s Church of San Domenico.
Sacred Theft and Authenticity Issues
The high demand for relics led to widespread practices like furta sacra – the theft of sacred objects. One notable example is Venice’s acquisition of St. Mark’s remains from Alexandria in the ninth century to bolster its civic prestige. Such acts were often justified as bringing relics to places where they would receive proper veneration.
However, this fervor also gave rise to forgeries and dubious claims about relic authenticity. By the Late Middle Ages, skepticism grew regarding some relics’ origins – Martin Luther famously mocked claims such as possessing feathers from Gabriel’s wing or flames from Moses’ burning bush. The Fourth Lateran Council in 1215 attempted to regulate this by requiring bishops to authenticate relics.
Charlemagne, A Serious Relic Collector
Charlemagne, was not only a formidable ruler and military strategist but also an avid collector of religious relics. His efforts to acquire these sacred objects were driven by both genuine piety and a desire to enhance the spiritual and political authority of his empire. The methods he employed ranged from diplomatic exchanges to miraculous discoveries, and even outright theft, reflecting the multifaceted role relics played in medieval Christendom.
Diplomatic Gifts and Political Alliances
One of Charlemagne’s most significant sources of relics was diplomatic exchanges. As an emperor with strong ties to the Papacy and other Christian rulers, Charlemagne received numerous relics as gifts. A notable example is his relationship with Caliph Harun al-Rashid of the Abbasid Caliphate. In 801, Harun appointed Charlemagne as the “official guardian of Jerusalem,” a symbolic gesture aimed at countering Byzantine influence. This alliance facilitated the transfer of relics from the Holy Land to Charlemagne’s court, including fragments of the True Cross and purported hair of the Virgin Mary.
Relics also flowed into his empire through exchanges with other Christian powers. For instance, the robe of the Virgin Mary, swaddling clothes of Jesus, and John the Baptist’s cloth were among those reportedly sent from Jerusalem to Aachen. These relics became central to the Aachen Pilgrimage, a tradition that began under Charlemagne and continues to this day.
Miraculous Discoveries
Charlemagne’s collection efforts were not limited to diplomatic channels; they also included extraordinary tales of divine intervention. One famous account involves his discovery of the relics of Saint Anne, mother of the Virgin Mary, in 792. According to legend, a deaf and mute boy guided Charlemagne to a hidden crypt where a vigil lamp burned miraculously. Upon uncovering Saint Anne’s relics, the boy was miraculously healed, prompting widespread veneration and awe. This story highlights how relic discoveries were often framed as miraculous events that reinforced Charlemagne’s divine favor and legitimacy as a ruler.
The Role of Theft
While diplomacy and miracles played significant roles, relic theft was another common practice during this period. Although there is no direct evidence tying Charlemagne himself to such acts, his court was not above engaging in this practice. For example, after Charlemagne’s death, his biographer Einhard orchestrated the theft of relics from Rome for his monastery at Mulinheim. Einhard employed a deacon named Deusdona, who specialized in acquiring relics through dubious means, underscoring how relic acquisition often blurred ethical boundaries.
Relics as Instruments of Power
Charlemagne understood the immense spiritual and political capital associated with relics. By housing them in Aachen Cathedral and other churches across his empire, he positioned himself as a protector of Christendom. Relics not only drew pilgrims but also legitimized his rule by linking it to sacred history. For instance, decrees during his reign mandated that all Christian altars contain relics – a move that further centralized religious authority under his empire.
The strangest relics
Multiple churches claimed to have baby teeth of Jesus, although according to the Gospels, there’s no record of Jesus’ teeth being collected, let alone saved.
There were up to 18 different “Holy Prepuces” (Jesus’ foreskin) floating around Europe at one point, all claimed to be the authentic one from his circumcision. The Vatican eventually banned discussion of it entirely in the 20th century.
Various churches claimed to have literal crumbs from the Last Supper, preserved for over a thousand years – because apparently nobody swept up after dinner?
Vials of what was claimed to be Mary’s breast milk were prized relics across Europe. Some monasteries even claimed their supply miraculously replenished itself. (Spoiler: it was probably chalky water or animal milk.)
Hay from Jesus’ manger, because nothing says sacred like 1,300-year-old straw in a glass box.
Theologian John Calvin once quipped that if all the fragments of the “True Cross” were assembled, they could fill a ship. Pilgrims would come from miles around to touch what was allegedly a splinter of the very cross Jesus was crucified on… or several dozen crosses.
Not just one, not two, but several skulls of John the Baptist turned up – sometimes even multiple infant and adult versions. One of them was claimed by Amiens Cathedral in France, with great fanfare.
Criticism and Decline
The Renaissance brought a shift in attitudes toward relics. Humanist scholars and Protestant reformers criticized their veneration as superstitious and exploitative. Martin Luther’s denunciations during the Reformation highlighted how some practices surrounding relics had strayed from genuine faith. The Council of Trent (1545–1563) responded by forbidding the sale of relics and emphasizing their proper veneration without superstition.
Legacy
Despite these critiques, relics remain an enduring part of Christian tradition. They reflect medieval Europe’s complex interplay between faith, art, politics, and commerce. Relics were not merely spiritual objects; they held significant economic and political value. Churches housing important relics attracted pilgrims whose donations enriched local economies. Monarchs and nobles also sought relics to legitimize their rule or enhance their prestige.
