The story of the Khazars – a powerful Turkic people whose medieval empire straddled the crossroads of Europe and Asia – remains one of the most intriguing and debated episodes in Jewish and Eurasian history. Their reported conversion to Judaism in the 8th or 9th century transformed Khazaria into one of the few known Jewish states in history, sparking centuries of fascination, speculation, and controversy.
Who Were the Khazars?
The Khazars emerged as a dominant force in the region north of the Caucasus Mountains, between the Black and Caspian Seas, from the 7th to the 10th centuries CE. Their empire controlled key trade routes between the Byzantine Empire, the Islamic Caliphates, and the steppes of Central Asia, making Khazaria a vibrant hub of commerce, diplomacy, and cultural exchange.
The Conversion
According to medieval sources, the conversion of the Khazars to Judaism occurred under King Bulan, traditionally dated to around 740 CE, though some historians suggest a later date in the first half of the 9th century. The most famous account describes King Bulan inviting representatives of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam to his court to debate their faiths. After listening to their arguments, Bulan chose Judaism, reportedly to assert independence from his powerful neighbors – the Christian Byzantine Empire and the Muslim Caliphate – and to unify his diverse realm under a neutral faith.
The presence of Jewish merchants and refugees fleeing persecution in Byzantium and Persia may have influenced the Khazar elite, who saw advantages in aligning with the Jewish diaspora for trade and diplomacy.
This narrative, preserved in documents like the Khazar Correspondence – letters exchanged between King Joseph of Khazaria and Hasdai ibn Shaprut, a Jewish leader in Muslim Spain – has been widely cited as evidence of the conversion. Other sources, including Arab historians such as Ibn Fadlân and Ibn al-Faqîh, also mention the Khazars as Jews or as having recently adopted Judaism.
Religious and Social Transformation
Following the royal conversion, Judaism reportedly spread among the Khazar elite and, to a lesser extent, the broader population. Under King Obadiah, synagogues and Jewish schools were established, and rabbinical Judaism – with its emphasis on the Torah, Talmud, and Jewish law – became institutionalized. Jewish holidays, circumcision, and biblical names became common among the Khazar nobility.
Despite the adoption of Judaism as the state religion, Khazaria was known for its remarkable religious tolerance. The supreme court in the capital, Atil, included judges representing Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and paganism, reflecting the kingdom’s multicultural makeup and pragmatic approach to governance.
How Widespread Was the Conversion?
A central question is whether the conversion was limited to the ruling elite or embraced by the broader population.
- Elite Conversion: The prevailing view among modern scholars is that the conversion primarily involved the Khazar nobility and ruling class, with the general population – composed of various Turkic, Slavic, and other peoples – retaining their traditional beliefs or converting only superficially.
- Evidence for Mass Conversion: Some sources, such as the letter of King Joseph, claim that “all the Khazars are Jews,” but these statements are often interpreted as rhetorical or reflecting the official stance rather than demographic reality.
- Archaeological Evidence: Despite references in medieval texts, archaeological evidence for widespread Jewish practice in Khazaria is sparse. Few artifacts, inscriptions, or graves with distinctly Jewish symbols have been found, leading some scholars to doubt the extent of the conversion.
Most scholars maintain that, while the conversion may not have been as extensive as once believed, there is sufficient textual and circumstantial evidence to support the reality of a Khazar Jewish elite and a state-sponsored adoption of Judaism. The phenomenon of steppe rulers adopting universal religions for political reasons is well-attested elsewhere, and the Khazar case, while unusual, fits this broader pattern
The Fate of the Khazars and Their Legacy
By the late 10th century, Khazaria faced mounting military and political pressure from the rising power of the Kievan Rus. The sacking of Atil, the Khazar capital, by Sviatoslav of Kiev in the 960s marked the effective end of Khazar independence. Some Khazar communities persisted for a time, but the kingdom faded from the historical record, its people assimilating into surrounding populations or migrating elsewhere.
A Unique Jewish State
The Khazar conversion has fueled centuries of speculation about the origins of Eastern European Jewry. Some 19th- and 20th-century writers advanced the controversial theory that Ashkenazi Jews are primarily descended from Khazars, a claim now widely rejected by genetic and historical research. Nonetheless, the Khazar story continues to inspire debate about identity, migration, and the nature of religious conversion.
The Khazar experiment stands out as a rare example of a state adopting Judaism as its official religion, alongside ancient Israel and, much later, the modern State of Israel. This unique status has made Khazaria a subject of fascination for historians, novelists, and political theorists alike.
Khazaria’s pragmatic approach to religious diversity – balancing Judaism with Christianity, Islam, and indigenous beliefs – offers a model of coexistence that contrasts sharply with the religious exclusivism of many medieval states. The Khazar court’s willingness to engage in interfaith dialogue and accommodate multiple communities is a notable aspect of their legacy.
Conclusion
The conversion of Khazaria to Judaism remains one of the most enigmatic and debated episodes in medieval history. While the precise details – timing, extent, and motivations – are still contested, the story of the Khazars highlights the complex interplay of religion, politics, and identity at the crossroads of civilizations. Whether viewed as a historical reality, a legend, or something in between, the Khazar conversion continues to captivate scholars and the public alike, reminding us of the enduring power of religious and cultural transformation.
