Early Life and Rise to Power
William the Conqueror, originally known as William the Bastard, was born around 1028 in Falaise, Normandy. His father, Robert I, Duke of Normandy, and his mother, Herleva, were not married, which led to William’s initial moniker. Despite his illegitimacy, William’s father named him as his heir before embarking on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, where he died in 1035 .
Young William’s early years were fraught with danger and instability. As a child duke, he faced numerous threats from rival nobles who sought to exploit his youth and illegitimacy. His guardians were murdered, and his life was constantly at risk. However, William’s resilience and determination saw him through these turbulent times. By 1047, he had quashed a major rebellion and began to establish his authority over Normandy.
The Path to the English Throne
William’s ambitions extended beyond Normandy. His marriage to Matilda of Flanders in the early 1050s provided him with a powerful ally to the North and further solidified his position. By the 1060s, William had his sights set on the English throne. The childless King Edward the Confessor had allegedly promised the throne to William, a claim that was contested by Harold Godwinson, a powerful English earl with the support of the nobility.
When Edward died in January 1066, Harold was crowned king, but William was not willing to relinquish his claim. He argued that Harold had sworn to support his claim to the throne and began preparations for an invasion. In September 1066, William crossed the English Channel with a formidable fleet and army.
The Battle of Hastings
Earlier in September 1066, Harold Godwinson faced an invasion from Harald Hardrada and his own brother Tostig. Harold marched his army north and achieved a decisive victory at the Battle of Stamford Bridge on September 25, 1066. However, this victory came at a huge cost. Harold’s army was exhausted and had to march south almost immediately to face William who had landed his forces at Pevensey on 28 September 1066 and established a beachhead.
On the morning of October 14, 1066, the two armies met near Hastings in Sussex. Harold’s forces took a defensive position on Senlac Hill, forming a shield wall. The English army consisted entirely of infantry. It is possible that some of the higher-class members of the army rode to battle, but then dismounted when battle was joined to fight on foot. The core of the army was made up of housecarls, full-time professional soldiers. Their armour consisted of a conical helmet, a mail hauberk, and a shield, which might be either kite-shaped or round. Most housecarls fought with the two-handed Danish battleaxe, but they could also carry a sword. The rest of the army was made up of levies from the fyrd, also infantry but more lightly armoured and not professionals.
Most of the infantry would have formed part of the shield wall, in which the front ranks locked their shields together. Harold’s forces deployed in a small, dense formation at the top of a steep slope, with their flanks protected by woods and marshy ground in front of them. The line may have extended far enough to be anchored on a nearby stream.
William’s army, like Harald’s, was estimated at 7-8,000 men. It was composed of around 50% infantry, 25% archers, and 25% cavalry, in contrast to the English who were almost entirely infantry.
The primary Norman armor consisted of chainmail hauberks, typically knee-length with slits for riding and sometimes featuring elbow-length sleeves. Some hauberks might have been constructed from scales attached to a tunic, with the scales made of metal, horn, or hardened leather. Head protection usually came in the form of a conical metal helmet with a vertical band protecting the nose bridge. Both horsemen and infantry carried shields; infantry shields were generally round and wooden with metal reinforcement, while horsemen transitioned to kite-shaped shields. Both infantry and cavalry commonly wielded long, double-edged straight swords. Infantry also utilized javelins and long spears, while some cavalry might have preferred maces over swords. Archers employed either bows or crossbows, and most were not armored.
The Initial Assault: William’s archers launched volleys of arrows, but the English shield wall on the hill held firm. The Norman infantry then advanced to attempt to break the English line to create gaps for their cavalry to exploit, but they too were repelled by the steadfast English defense.
The battle raged throughout the day although a lull probably occurred early in the afternoon, and a break for rest and food would probably have been needed. Then late in the day, in a brilliant tactical move, William ordered a feigned retreat. The English, thinking they had won, broke ranks to pursue the fleeing Normans. This was a fatal mistake. The Norman cavalry turned and attacked the disorganized English forces, breaking the shield wall.
As the battle raged on, Harold was struck down. Harold appears to have died late in the battle, although accounts in the various sources are contradictory. William of Poitiers only mentions his death, without giving any details on how it occurred. The Tapestry is not helpful, as it shows a figure holding an arrow sticking out of his eye next to a falling fighter being hit with a sword. Over both figures is a statement “Here King Harold has been killed”. It is not clear which figure is meant to be Harold, or if both are meant. With their leader dead, the English forces began to crumble despite a last stand nearby at a place known as theMalfosse (“evil ditch”).
Consolidating Power
William’s conquest of England was far from complete after Hastings. He faced numerous uprisings and rebellions from the Anglo-Saxon nobility. Over the next few years, William ruthlessly suppressed these revolts, often employing brutal tactics to maintain control. One of the most infamous episodes was the Harrying of the North in 1069-70, where William’s forces devastated large swathes of northern England, killing thousands of civilians, to quell resistance.
To secure his rule, William implemented a series of reforms that transformed English society. He introduced the feudal system, redistributing land to his Norman followers and ensuring their loyalty. The construction of numerous castles, including the Tower of London, helped to fortify his control over the country.
The Domesday Book
One of William’s most significant achievements was the commissioning of the Domesday Book in 1085. This comprehensive survey of England’s lands and resources provided a detailed record of the country’s wealth and helped William to administer his realm more effectively. The Domesday Book remains an invaluable historical document, offering insights into medieval England.
Legacy and Death
William’s reign was marked by both achievements and challenges. Despite his precarious beginnings as an illegitimate child, he successfully established himself as King of England. However, his later years were troubled by conflicts with his sons and other nobles. William died on September 9, 1087, in Rouen, Normandy, after suffering injuries from a fall during a campaign.
William the Conqueror’s impact on England was profound and lasting. His conquest brought about significant cultural and political changes, laying the foundations for the modern English state. The fusion of Norman and Anglo-Saxon cultures under his rule created a new, dynamic society that would shape the future of England and beyond.
