The Siege of Constantinople by the Rus in 860 CE stands as a pivotal moment in Byzantine history, marking the first major military expedition of the Rus’ people against the mighty Eastern Roman Empire. This unexpected attack not only caught the Byzantines off guard but also heralded the emergence of a new power in Eastern Europe that would shape the region’s geopolitics for centuries to come.
The Rise of the Rus’
The Rus’, a people of Scandinavian origin, had begun to make their presence felt in Eastern Europe in the 9th century. Their first recorded interaction with the Byzantine Empire occurred in 838 when two Norsemen, who called themselves Rhos, participated in a Byzantine diplomatic mission to the Frankish court of Louis I Pius.
This early contact foreshadowed the complex relationship that would develop between the Rus’ and the Byzantine Empire in the coming decades. As the Rus’ established themselves along the river systems of Eastern Europe, they began to exert control over key trade routes. Their growing power and ambition would eventually lead them to challenge the Byzantine Empire, the dominant force in the region.
The Prelude to the Siege
Byzantine Vulnerabilities
In the summer of 860, the Byzantine Empire found itself in a precarious position. Emperor Michael III, known as “the Drunkard,” was absent from Constantinople, as was the imperial navy, which was engaged in battles against the Saracens in the Aegean Sea. Furthermore, the imperial army, including the troops normally garrisoned around the capital, was fighting the Arabs in Asia Minor. These circumstances left the coasts and islands of the Black Sea, the Bosporus, and the Sea of Marmara largely unprotected.
The Casus Belli
While the exact reasons for the Rus’ attack remain debated, some historians suggest that the construction of the fortress Sarkel by Byzantine engineers for their Khazar allies may have played a role. This fortress, built in the 830s or 840s, restricted the Rus’ trade route along the Don River, potentially threatening their economic interests. The timing and execution of the attack suggest that the Rus’ were well-informed about the city’s vulnerabilities, indicating that lines of trade and communication were already established between the two cultures.
The Siege Begins
The Surprise Attack
On June 18, 860, as the sun began to set, a fleet of approximately 200 Rus’ vessels suddenly appeared in the Bosporus. This “fleet” consisted of small ships, likely a hybrid type suitable for both river and sea travel. The attack caught the Byzantines completely by surprise, leaving them with little time to mount an effective defense.
The Assault on the Suburbs
Unable to breach the city’s formidable walls, the Rus’ turned their attention to the unprotected suburbs of Constantinople. The attackers set homes ablaze, drowning and stabbing residents in a brutal display of violence. The devastation was widespread, with the Rus’ pillaging monasteries and slaughtering captives indiscriminately.
The Isles of the Princes
After ravaging the suburbs, the Rus’ fleet moved into the Sea of Marmara, setting their sights on the Isles of the Princes. These islands, which served as a place of exile for political and religious figures, became the scene of further atrocities. The former Patriarch Ignatius of Constantinople, who was in exile on one of the islands, witnessed the destruction first hand. In a particularly gruesome act, the Rus’ captured twenty-two of the patriarch’s servants and dismembered them with axes aboard their ships.
Divine Intervention
With the city’s military defenses compromised, the spiritual leader of Constantinople, Patriarch Photius, took charge of rallying the populace. He urged the citizens to implore the Theotokos (Virgin Mary) to save the city from the barbarian invaders. According to tradition, Photius took the veil of the Theotokos and dipped it into the sea, causing a tempest to arise and disperse the Rus’ boats.
While the story of divine intervention through the Theotokos’ veil makes for compelling legend, it’s likely that a natural storm played a significant role in disrupting the Rus’ attack. The sudden change in weather not only scattered their fleet but also potentially caused them to lose much of their plundered wealth.
The Rus’ Retreat
After nearly two months of raiding and pillaging, the Rus’ forces withdrew on August 4, 860. While they had inflicted significant damage on the suburbs and surrounding areas, they had failed to breach the walls of Constantinople itself. The combination of the city’s formidable defenses, the alleged divine intervention, and the destructive storm likely contributed to their decision to retreat.
Impact on Byzantine-Rus’ Relations
The siege of 860, though unsuccessful in conquering Constantinople, had far-reaching consequences for both the Byzantines and the Rus’. For the Byzantines, it exposed vulnerabilities in their defenses and highlighted the need for better intelligence and preparedness against new threats from the north. For the Rus’, the raid, despite its ultimate failure, demonstrated their capacity to challenge even the mightiest empire of their time. It also likely provided them with valuable experience and knowledge that would inform future expeditions.
Interestingly, the story of Constantinople’s miraculous salvation from the Rus’ attack may have contributed to the popularity of the Theotokos among the Rus’ themselves. This cultural exchange, born from conflict, potentially played a role in the eventual Christianization of the Rus’ people.
Subsequent Rus’ Raids
The 860 siege was not an isolated incident but rather the beginning of a series of Rus’ attacks on Constantinople. Over the next two centuries, the Rus’ would launch at least six more significant raids against the Byzantine capital.
One of the most notable follow-up attacks occurred in 907, led by Oleg of Kiev. This campaign resulted in a treaty that granted the Rus’ significant trade privileges and established more formal relations between the two powers.
Another major conflict erupted in 941 during the reign of Igor of Kiev. This naval attack was initially repelled but was followed by a second assault. The war ended with a diplomatic resolution, further cementing the complex relationship between the Rus’ and Byzantium.
Long-Term Consequences
The Birth of the Varangian Guard
One of the most significant long-term outcomes of the Rus’-Byzantine conflicts was the establishment of the Varangian Guard. This elite unit of Norse warriors served as the personal bodyguard of the Byzantine emperors and played a crucial role in Byzantine politics and warfare for centuries.
The Christianization of the Rus’
The repeated interactions between the Rus’ and Byzantium, both violent and peaceful, eventually led to the adoption of Orthodox Christianity by the Rus’. This cultural and religious transformation would have profound implications for the development of Russian civilization and its relationship with the rest of Europe.
Historical Significance
The siege of Constantinople in 860 marks the emergence of the Rus’ as a significant power capable of challenging the established order. For the Byzantines, the attack served as a wake-up call, forcing them to reassess their defenses and diplomatic strategies. It led to a more nuanced approach to dealing with the northern “barbarians,” alternating between conflict and cooperation as circumstances dictated.
From a broader historical perspective, the siege foreshadows the eventual decline of Byzantine power and the rise of new states in Eastern Europe. The Rus’, who would later evolve into the founders of the Russian state, demonstrated their potential to shape regional politics and commerce.
