The Hunnic invasions of the Roman and Sasanian Empires in 375 CE set in motion a chain of events that would reshape the geopolitical landscape of Eurasia. These nomadic warriors from the steppes of Central Asia unleashed a wave of destruction that would ultimately contribute to the fall of the Western Roman Empire and significantly weaken the Sasanian Empire.
Origins and Early Movements of the Huns
The Huns first appeared in European historical records in the 4th century CE. They are believed to have migrated westward from Central Asia, and as they moved into the Pontic-Caspian steppe, they encountered and subjugated various peoples, including the Alans and the Ostrogoths.
The Huns’ military prowess was legendary. They were skilled horsemen and archers, capable of firing arrows with deadly accuracy while riding at full gallop. This combination of mobility and firepower made them a formidable force on the open plains of Eastern Europe and Western Asia.
The Hunnic Invasion of 375 CE
In 375 CE, the Huns launched a series of devastating attacks on both the Eastern Roman Empire and the Sasanian Empire. This dual invasion was unprecedented in its scale and ferocity, catching both empires off guard.
Attack on the Roman Provinces
The Hunnic invasion of the Roman provinces began with a massive push across the Caucasus Mountains. The Huns, likely led by multiple chieftains, poured into the Roman territory of Armenia which had long been contested between Rome and Persia, but now faced with a new and terrifying enemy.
As news of the Hunnic advance spread, panic gripped the region, and many sought refuge in fortified positions. One such stronghold was the fortress of Ziatha, located near the Tigris River. As the Hunnic forces approached, a large number of civilians from the surrounding areas rushed to seek protection within its walls. The fortress, designed to withstand sieges, seemed to offer the best chance of survival against the marauding Huns.
The Siege Begins
When the Hunnic army arrived at Ziatha, they found a fortress packed with both military defenders and civilian refugees. The Huns, known for their mounted archery and swift cavalry tactics, were not typically associated with siege warfare. However, the events at Ziatha would demonstrate their adaptability and ruthlessness in pursuing their objectives.
The Huns began their siege by surrounding the fortress, cutting off any possibility of escape or reinforcement. Their first actions focused on controlling the fortress’s vital resources. They seized control of the routes into the fortress preventing any movement in or out of Ziatha. More crucially, they captured the aqueducts, effectively cutting off the water supply to those inside the fortress.
Starvation Tactics
With the fortress isolated and its water supply severed, the Huns settled in for a siege of attrition. Rather than attempting a direct assault on the walls, which would have been costly and potentially unsuccessful, they chose to let hunger and thirst do their work.
The defenders and refugees inside Ziatha soon found themselves in a desperate situation. As days turned into weeks, food and water supplies dwindled rapidly. The summer heat exacerbated the situation, increasing the need for water among the besieged population. The Roman defenders attempted to ration supplies, however, with a large civilian population to support and no relief in sight, their situation became increasingly untenable.
The Fall of Ziatha
As starvation and dehydration took their toll, the morale of the defenders crumbled. Eventually, faced with the choice between certain death by starvation or the slim hope of survival by surrender, the defenders of Ziatha capitulated to the Huns.
The fall of the fortress marked the beginning of a new phase of horror for its inhabitants. The Huns showed little mercy to the conquered population. They razed the fortress to the ground, destroying its defenses and buildings. This act not only eliminated Ziatha as a future threat but also sent a clear message to other Roman strongholds about the fate that awaited them if they resisted.
The human cost of the siege was catastrophic. The Huns either killed or enslaved the survivors. Those who were not immediately put to death faced a grim future of forced marches, slave labor, or being sold in distant markets.
The Roman response to this invasion was hampered by internal strife. Emperor Theodosius I’s forces were largely committed to conflicts in the Western Empire, leaving the eastern provinces vulnerable. This lack of immediate resistance allowed the Huns to penetrate deep into Roman territory, moving virtually unopposed, even threatening the great city of Antioch in Syria.
The Huns’ primary objective appeared to be plunder rather than conquest or settlement. They targeted cattle and other valuable resources, likely driven by a reported famine on the steppes, their homeland.
Rome Responds
As the invasion dragged on, the Eastern Roman Empire began to organize a counteroffensive. The turning point came in 398 CE when Eutropius, a powerful eunuch in the imperial court, managed to gather a mixed force of Romans and Goths.
Eutropius’ army succeeded in restoring order to the ravaged provinces, effectively ending the Hunnic invasion. However, the Huns were not defeated in battle, rather they withdrew with their huge haul of slaves, livestock and loot back through the Caucasus to the steppes.
Invasion of the Sasanian Empire
Simultaneously with their attack on Roman territories, the Huns launched an invasion of the Sasanian Empire. This two-pronged assault was likely not coordinated at the highest levels but rather represented the opportunistic nature of Hunnic warfare.
The Hunnic forces that entered Persia were led by two commanders named Basiq and Kursich. These leaders led their hordes down the Euphrates River, pillaging as they went. Their ultimate target was Ctesiphon, the capital of the Sasanian Empire.
The Sasanian Empire, caught off guard by this sudden invasion, initially struggled to mount an effective defense. The Huns’ speed and mobility allowed them to penetrate deep into Persian territory, causing widespread destruction and panic.
The Battle Near Ctesiphon
As the Huns approached Ctesiphon, the situation became critical for the Sasanians. The capital was the heart of their empire, and its fall would have been catastrophic. However, the Sasanian military, with its long tradition of heavy cavalry and archery, was not to be underestimated.
When news reached the Huns that a large Sasanian army was marching to meet them, they made the decision to retreat. This retreat, however, was not to be an easy one. Slowed by their captives and the loot they had accumulated, the Hunnic forces became disorganized.
The Sasanian army, composed of their famed cataphract cavalry and horse archers, caught up with the retreating Huns. In the ensuing battle, the Persians held the high ground, allowing their archers to rain arrows down on the lightly armored Hunnic forces. The result was a decisive victory for the Sasanians.
Most of the Hunnic warriors were slain in this battle, and the Persians recaptured almost all of the loot that had been taken. Perhaps most significantly, they freed an estimated 18,000 captives who had been taken by the Huns during their rampage through the empire.
Retreat
The surviving Huns, their invasion turned into a disaster, were forced to flee. They retreated northward, likely taking the treacherous route through the Derbent Pass in the Caucasus Mountains. The retreat through the Derbent Pass was difficult and costly for the already battered Hunnic forces. However, it allowed them to escape back to the relative safety of the steppes, where they could regroup and plan future raids.
Impact on the Roman and Sasanian Empires
The Hunnic invasions of 375 CE had significant impacts on both the Roman and Sasanian Empires, despite their relatively short duration. The Huns demonstrated the potential of nomadic confederacies to challenge even the mightiest sedentary empires, a pattern that would be repeated throughout history with groups like the Mongols.
Roman Empire
For the Romans, the Hunnic invasion exposed the vulnerability of their eastern provinces. The ease with which the Huns had penetrated their defenses was alarming, and it highlighted the need for improved border security and military readiness.
The invasion also contributed to the ongoing migration and displacement of peoples within and around the empire. As the Huns pushed westward, they set off a chain reaction of tribal movements. Gothic and other Germanic peoples, fleeing the Hunnic advance, put increased pressure on the Roman frontiers. This would ultimately lead to events such as the Gothic crossing of the Danube in 376 CE and the disastrous Battle of Adrianople in 378 CE, where the Eastern Roman Emperor Valens was killed.
In the long term, these population movements and military defeats would contribute to the weakening and eventual fall of the Western Roman Empire. While the Eastern Empire would survive and eventually repel later Hunnic invasions under leaders like Attila, the events of 375 CE marked the beginning of a new and tumultuous era in Roman history.
Sasanian Empire
For the Sasanian Empire, the invasion of 375 CE was a wake-up call. While they had ultimately repelled the Huns, the initial success of the invasion revealed weaknesses in their defenses, particularly against highly mobile nomadic forces.
The Sasanians would face ongoing conflicts with Hunnic groups in the following decades and centuries. These conflicts would drain resources and manpower, contributing to periods of weakness in the empire. However, the experience gained in fighting the Huns also led to military adaptations and improvements that would serve the Sasanians well in future conflicts.
