The Sixth Crusade, also known as the Crusade of Frederick II, stands out as one of the most unusual and intriguing chapters in the history of the Crusades. Taking place from 1228 to 1229 CE, this expedition achieved what previous bloody campaigns had failed to do: the return of Jerusalem to Christian control through diplomacy rather than warfare.
Background and Context
The Sixth Crusade emerged in the wake of the failed Fifth Crusade (1217-1221 CE), which had attempted to capture Jerusalem by attacking Egypt, seen as the weaker part of the Ayyubid dynasty. Despite initial successes, including the capture of Damietta in 1219, the Fifth Crusade ultimately ended in defeat at the hands of al-Kamil, the Sultan of Egypt and Syria.
The Key Players
Frederick II Hohenstaufen
At the center of the Sixth Crusade was Frederick II Hohenstaufen, Holy Roman Emperor (r. 1220-1250 CE). Born in 1194, Frederick was the grandson of Frederick Barbarossa, who had been one of the leaders of the Third Crusade. From his youth in Sicily, Frederick harbored a dream of leading a crusade to free Jerusalem.
Frederick first took a crusading vow at his coronation as “King of the Romans” in Aachen on July 25, 1215. He renewed this vow at his coronation as Holy Roman Emperor in Rome in November 1220. However, Frederick’s commitment to the crusade would be repeatedly delayed as he consolidated his power in Germany and Italy.
Al-Kamil
The Muslim leader during the Sixth Crusade was al-Malik al-Kamil (r. 1218-1238 CE), the Sultan of Egypt and Syria. Son of al-Adil and nephew of the famous Saladin, al-Kamil had successfully defended Egypt against the Fifth Crusade.
The Origins of Delay
The story of the Sixth Crusade’s delays begins with its primary protagonist, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. As early as 1215, Pope Innocent III had called for a new crusade, which would eventually become known as the Fifth Crusade. Frederick II, who was not yet emperor at the time, made a solemn vow to participate in this holy war. However, his commitment would be followed by years of postponement, setting a pattern that would define the lead-up to the Sixth Crusade.
Frederick’s initial delays were rooted in his complex political situation. As ruler of vast territories spanning from Sicily to Germany, he faced numerous challenges in consolidating his power. Pope Innocent III, understanding the importance of Frederick’s involvement, granted him leave to postpone his expedition until he had put his affairs in Germany in order. This concession, while pragmatic, set a precedent for further delays.
Papal Patience Wears Thin
In 1220, Frederick’s position seemed to strengthen. Pope Honorius III, successor to Innocent III, crowned Frederick and his wife Constance as Emperor and Empress. In return, Frederick made a definitive promise to set out for the East the following spring. Yet, once again, this commitment went unfulfilled.
The patience of the papacy began to wear thin as Frederick continued to prioritize his European concerns over his crusading vows. The situation reached a critical point in 1227 when the new Pope, Gregory IX, ran out of patience with Frederick’s repeated delays. The crusade, long scheduled for August 15, 1227, was postponed once more, this time due to an outbreak of illness among the troops, possibly cholera.
In September 1227, Pope Gregory IX took the drastic step of excommunicating Frederick II. This action created a paradoxical situation: the leader of the Sixth Crusade was now officially an enemy of the Church. The excommunication would have far-reaching consequences, making the Sixth Crusade unique in its lack of papal support.
A Crusade Without the Church
Frederick’s excommunication put him in an unprecedented position. He was now embarking on a holy war while under the ban of the very institution that had called for it. This situation not only undermined Frederick’s authority but also complicated his relationships with other Christian leaders in the Holy Land.
Despite the papal censure, Frederick was determined to fulfill his crusading vow. In the late summer of 1227, most of his crusade fleet left Italy. However, Frederick himself was once again delayed, this time by a genuine illness. This delay, while unintentional, further strained his already tenuous relationship with the papacy.
When Frederick finally departed in the summer of 1228, he did so with a significantly reduced force. The repeated delays had taken their toll on the crusading army, with many potential participants having either abandoned the cause or set out earlier. Frederick arrived in Cyprus on July 21, 1228, with an army that was a mere shadow of what had been originally envisioned.
Diplomatic Maneuvering
Frederick’s delayed arrival in the Holy Land coincided with a period of political instability within the Ayyubid dynasty, which controlled much of the region. Al-Malik al-Kāmil, the Sultan of Egypt, was facing threats from his own brothers and was therefore more open to negotiation.
Recognizing the weakness of his own military position, Frederick made a bold decision. Rather than engaging in a potentially disastrous military campaign, he opted for diplomacy. This approach was not only pragmatic given his limited forces but also aligned with Frederick’s personal inclinations. As a ruler known for his intellectual pursuits and cultural interests, Frederick was well-suited to the task of cross-cultural negotiation.
Frederick hoped that a show of force, combined with negotiations, would be enough to convince al-Kamil to surrender Jerusalem. This diplomatic approach was aided by several factors:
- Previous Negotiations: Frederick had already engaged in negotiations with al-Kamil years earlier, before the death of al-Muazzam, the governor of Damascus.
- Al-Kamil’s Position: The Sultan was facing challenges from rival Ayyubid princes and was potentially open to an agreement that would secure his western flank.
- Frederick’s Reputation: Despite his small force, Frederick’s reputation as Holy Roman Emperor lent weight to his negotiations.
The Treaty of Jaffa
Frederick’s gambit paid off. On February 18, 1229, he and al-Kamil signed the Treaty of Jaffa. The key points of the treaty included:
- Jerusalem: The holy city was handed over to Christian rule, along with a corridor to the coast.
- Other Territories: Bethlehem and Nazareth were also ceded to the Christians.
- Muslim Rights: Muslims retained control of the Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa Mosque, and were guaranteed the right to worship in Jerusalem.
- Duration: The treaty was set to last for ten years and ten months.
Frederick’s Entry into Jerusalem
On March 17, 1229, Frederick II entered Jerusalem and crowned himself King of Jerusalem in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. This was a remarkable achievement – Jerusalem had been under Muslim control since Saladin captured it in 1187, and four previous Crusades had failed to reclaim it.
However, Frederick’s triumph was not without controversy. As an excommunicate, his presence in the holy city was problematic for many clergy. The Patriarch of Jerusalem placed the city under interdict, meaning that no Christian services could be held while Frederick was present.
Reactions and Aftermath
The outcome of the Sixth Crusade elicited mixed reactions in the Christian World. Pope Gregory IX, who had excommunicated Frederick, was not pleased with the emperor’s independent action and success. Many nobles in the Crusader states were unhappy with Frederick’s deal, feeling it didn’t go far enough, despite Frederick’s limited military power. While in Europe, opinions were divided. Some saw Frederick’s diplomatic success as a triumph, while others felt a negotiated settlement fell short of the crusading ideal.
The Sultan Al-Kamil faced widespread criticism from Muslims, including other Ayyubid princes, for surrendering Jerusalem. Despite the criticism, al-Kamil used the peace on his western frontier to consolidate his control, eventually taking Damascus.
Long-Term Impact
The Sixth Crusade’s impact was significant but relatively short-lived. The holy city remained in Christian hands until 1244, though Acre remained the capital of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The peaceful resolution was temporary. In October 1244, a large Latin army was defeated at the battle of La Forbie, significantly strengthening Muslim control of the region.
The Sixth Crusade, led by the excommunicated Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, achieved through diplomacy what previous crusades had failed to accomplish through bloodshed: the return of Jerusalem to Christian control. This unusual crusade, marked by negotiation rather than large-scale battles, stands as a unique chapter in the history of the Crusades.
