The Fall of Acre in 1291 marked a pivotal moment in the history of the Crusades, signaling the end of Christian rule in the Holy Land after nearly two centuries of conflict. This dramatic event not only reshaped the political landscape of the Middle East but also had far-reaching consequences for European-Muslim relations and the future of crusading efforts.
The Kingdom of Jerusalem: A Brief History
The Kingdom of Jerusalem was established in 1099 following the First Crusade, which had been called by Pope Urban II in 1095. For almost 200 years, this Crusader state stood as a testament to European ambitions in the Levant, with its capital initially in Jerusalem and later in Acre.
The kingdom faced numerous challenges throughout its existence, including internal power struggles and external threats from Muslim forces. In 1187, the kingdom suffered a major setback when Saladin, the founder of the Ayyubid dynasty, captured Jerusalem. This loss prompted the Third Crusade, which resulted in the re-establishment of the kingdom, albeit with a new capital in Acre.
The Strategic Importance of Acre
Acre, known in Arabic as Akka and to the Crusaders as Ptolemais, was a crucial port city on the Mediterranean coast. It served as the capital of the Kingdom of Jerusalem from 1191 to 1291, following the loss of Jerusalem to Saladin. The city’s strategic location made it a vital link between Europe and the Holy Land, serving as a key entry point for pilgrims, supplies, and reinforcements.
Acre’s defenses were formidable, boasting an inner and outer wall system with twelve towers constructed by various European monarchs and wealthy pilgrims. These fortifications had withstood previous sieges, including a notable one by Saladin in 1189-1191, which ended with the city’s recapture by Crusader forces during the Third Crusade.
The Road to the Siege
By the late 13th century, the Crusader states were in decline. The Mamluks, a powerful Islamic dynasty that had overthrown the Ayyubids in Egypt, were expanding their control over the Levant. Sultan Qalawun had been systematically conquering the remaining Crusader strongholds, and Acre was next on his list.
In 1290, tensions between the Crusaders and the Mamluks escalated. Qalawun used a massacre of Muslim merchants in Acre as a pretext to break the existing truce. He began mobilizing his forces in October 1290, but died before the campaign could begin. His son, Al-Ashraf Khalil, succeeded him and continued with the plans to besiege Acre.
The Siege Begins
On April 6, 1291, Sultan Khalil arrived at Acre with a massive army, estimated to be over 100,000 strong. The defending Crusader forces, by contrast, numbered only about 15,000, including knights from the military orders (Templars, Hospitallers, and Teutonic Knights), as well as civilians.
The Mamluk army was well-equipped with siege engines, including powerful catapults with evocative names like “The Victorious” and “The Furious”. The Syrian contingents arrived two days later, completing the encirclement of the city from coast to coast.
The Battle Unfolds
The first week of the siege saw little direct combat as the Mamluks established their positions. From the ninth day onward, they began pushing their siege engines and screens towards the city walls. The defenders launched several courageous sorties, including a daring night raid by 300 Templars led by Jean de Grailly and Otto de Grandson, who attacked the Mamluk artillery with Greek fire.
Despite these brave efforts, the Crusaders were vastly outnumbered and outgunned. The Mamluk bombardment was relentless, and their sappers worked tirelessly to undermine the city’s formidable walls. By May 18, after six weeks of siege, the outer wall was breached.
The Fall of Acre
As the Mamluks poured into the city, fierce street-to-street fighting ensued. The defending forces, including the military orders, made a valiant last stand, but were gradually pushed back towards the harbor. Many civilians attempted to flee by sea, crowding onto any available ships.
The Templar fortress, one of the last strongholds, held out until May 28, when it finally collapsed, killing all the knights inside. The Hospitallers had negotiated safe passage for the civilians under their protection, but this promise was brutally broken, and the evacuees were massacred outside the city.
King Henry II of Cyprus and Jerusalem, along with most of the military order leaders, managed to escape by sea. However, thousands of defenders and civilians were killed or captured during the final assault and its aftermath.
Aftermath and Significance
The fall of Acre marked the end of the Crusader presence in the Holy Land. The remaining Crusader strongholds along the coast quickly capitulated or were abandoned. The Templars held out briefly on the tiny island of Ruad, but lost it in 1302, ending the last vestige of Crusader control in the Levant.
The loss of Acre was a devastating blow to Christendom. It effectively ended the era of the Crusades in the Holy Land, although the idea of crusading would persist in other forms for centuries. The fall of the city was seen as a divine judgment by some contemporaries, while others blamed the internal divisions and moral decay of the Crusader states.
